Development as a second language teacher

Teaching a second language means teaching a language to learners who are not originally natives to that language. This form of instruction can either be carried out in the learner’s own nation either within the public school system or privately for instance in a part time language school or with a private tutor. The teachers can either be native or non-native speakers of the language. Teaching techniques Reading There is an increasing popularity in teaching that uses literature targeting the young children and teenagers.Teenager oriented literature provides simpler resources especially the reading material printed by major publishers and mostly gives a more comprehensive method than the one found in the adult literature (Tarone et al, 2009). Communicative language teaching Communicative language (CLT) concentrates on interaction as both a technique and an objective of learning a second language. The method is also described as the communicative approach to the instruction of f oreign languages or the communicative method.CLT is often found to be a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM) and a complementation or advancement of the notional-functional syllabus (Tarone et al, 2009). Blended learning Blended learning is an arrangement that incorporates both classroom teaching and online interactions and is also called CALL or computer-guided language learning which is realized through a virtual learning environment. Input and input processing Input and input processing are major components of developing a second language or second language acquisition.The term input describes all the information that the learner actually processes from the information offered to them. It is not possible to acquire second language without input and input processing. Acquisition models vary in the kind of input which is found to be the most significant factor to second language acquisition. Induction models view acquisition as a product from informal message-centered input w hile instructional models view formal instruction as a significant component of second language acquisition.Any of the acquisition models recognizes the direct relationship between language input which the students are exposed to and the language output they deliver. When input is offered by interaction in natural environment learners concentrate majorly on trying to comprehend and produce a message and end up acquiring the second language as a coincidence. Conversely, if learners emphasize on the language itself, they pick the language intentionally. The above analysis of input however suggests that input is always available to the learners whether in their conscious state or otherwise.Though the intention to learn is not vital to the learning process, attention to the input is essential to begin processing the input in order to acquire or develop the second language (Tarone et al, 2009). Social cultural perspective in language learning A social cultural viewpoint in language learn ing is based on theoretical assumptions and empirical investigation of learning acquired from different fields including human development, linguistic anthropology and social theory.According to this viewpoint, language development starts with an individual’s social world which encompasses a diverse mix of regularly appearing goal-oriented intellectual as well as practical activities. Through the learner’s direct involvement in the activities as well as transformations in the learner’s life, the structural components of language are acquired together with communicative intentions and particular perspectives of the language. It is though ultimate internalization of self-regulation of the particular methods of achievement of success in the activities that characterizes growth in language acquisition.From this view point, learning is regarded as the process of altering the patterns of participating in particular social practices among the communities as opposed to internal assimilation of structural features of language structures. Since schools are significant social setups, the activities constituting their classrooms are regarded as fundamental sites of learning a second language (Tarone et al, 2009). Classroom interaction Classroom interaction is a method in which learning is achieved in classrooms.In language classrooms, interaction assumes a significant role in language acquisition in that it’s both a medium of language acquisition as well as an object of educational attention. By interacting with each other, learners and teachers form a common body of knowledge. They also establish mutual understanding of their functions and relationships and the values and anticipations of their participation as members in the classrooms. This implies that through interactions, learners and teachers socialize into specific understanding of what constitutes the formal curriculum.The forms of interactions also assist in describing the values by w hich individual learners achieve their targets (Duff, 2000). Peer-to-peer dialogue in language acquisition In mutual dialogue, learners share ideas to solve linguistic challenges and/or construct language or ay information about language. Language mediates this activity as cognitive equipment to process and control meaning formulation and also as a social equipment to convey information to others. This implies that any word spoken can be viewed as both a process as well as a product.Peer-to-peer dialogue is important in all the four skills acquired in second language development, that is, reading, writing, speaking as well as listening. Peer-to-peer dialogue can thus be considered as a mediator to second language learning (Oxford, 1993). Value of reflection and reflective teaching Reflection or critical reflection describes an activity or procedure whereby an experience is remembered, considered and assessed normally in regard to a wider purpose.It is a reaction to past experiences and entails conscious recall and assessment of the experience as a basis for valuation and decision making and a directive for planning and plan execution. Reflective teaching has various approaches which include study of oneself and others, group teaching and exploring ones perspective of instructing through writing. In spite of the approach chosen, three parts that are a component of the method include: the event, recollection of the event and review and reaction to the event (Abbott, 2000). Errors and error correctionLearning of a second language involves Errors and error correction. Error analysts differentiate between errors, which are logical, and mistakes, which are not. They are concerned with identification of errors in the acquisition of second languages. An error can be categorized as a basic error, covert errors, overt errors or domain. They can also be classified on the basis of the level of the language. The classification of an error is very important since its correc tion is possible if it is positively identified (Corder, 2001). Qualities of a good second language teacherA good second language teacher is a pre-requisite to the learning of a second language. A good and qualified teacher will motivate the learners by making the lessons more interesting and educational. A good second language teacher should have the appropriate qualification and education. For instance, it is not obvious that a person whose native language is English is necessarily capable of teaching English. Teaching the language requires special training to equip the tutor with the necessary skills appropriate for teaching the language.Qualified tutors should have a firm knowledge of linguistics, language skills and the modern teaching methodologies and theories. The tutors should consistently keep themselves updated, for instance, by extensive or wide reading and participating in language conferences (Tarone & Swierzbin, 2009). Dedication and sense of humor A good second langu age teacher should have a passion for teaching and should be dedicated to the teaching career. The tutor should teach with the intention of making a difference in the learner and assist them to learn.A good second language teacher should not be solely be motivated by money but should have the inner motivation to teach and help. Motivation by money would imply that the tutor is more interested with acquiring money rather than the needs of the learners. The teacher should possess a good sense of humor. Such a teacher will be able to make the learning enjoyable and fun (Tarone & Swierzbin, 2009) Four skills in second language acquisition Listening Listening is the language skill which students mostly find the most difficult to comprehend. This is as a result of the students’ feeling that they not compelled to learn every word.To realize their objectives in relation to this skill, the tutor plays a significant role that is described by the following steps: first, it is necessary to assist all the learners prepare for the listening task properly before the text is introduced to them. It is therefore necessary for the tutor to make certain that the learners comprehend the language they require to finish the task and are fully informed of their expectations in the course. The learners need to be reassured that it is not necessary that they comprehend every word but most of the words especially the common ones.The next significant step is to encourage the learners to anticipate the words they would hear. In real life, the condition, the speaker, and the image clues all assist everyone to decipher oral messages (Duff, 2000). Speaking In teaching the speaking skill, the tutor must take into consideration that the language input used in the instructional process is higher than the level of the language production anticipated from the learners. Learners especially those in primary schools should be exposed to several speaking activities to enable them participate w ith little verbal response.At higher levels however, learners are motivated to start to manipulate language and convey themselves in a clearer and more personal means. In the primary school for instance, the two major speaking activities utilized are: songs, chants, and poems to encourage learners to imitate the model they hear on the cassette. Other activities are the game and pair work activities which should at all times emphasize on a particular model. These motivate the learners to start to manipulate the language by exposing them to certain amount of choice, although within a supposedly controlled situation (Duff, 2000).Reading In order to make reading a relaxed and interesting activity as opposed to a boring and tedious duty, it is significant to ensure that the learners do not struggle to read every word they come across, whether they are skimming for the wording for general meaning or scanning it to look for particular information. At this point, the teachers should select texts while considering the difficulty level. They should also consider the interest of the learners as well as their humor so that the learners are encouraged to read as they would do with their native language.The selected texts should be motivating enough to keep the learners entertained as well anxious to read and learn more of the language. As far as the listening activities are concerned, it is significant to invest more time preparing for the tasks by utilizing illustrations (Duff, 2000). Writing In the lower levels, EFL learners progress from writing secluded words and phrases, to short paragraphs about some specific topics or very common topics like family, home, and hobbies and friends. Since most of the learners at this level are unable to either linguistically or intellectually create written text from the start.The writing activities mainly show towards the end of a course to enable the learners have adequate exposure to the language and practice of the major structures and vocabulary they require. At this point, the learners work will invariably contain errors. The teacher should be more sensitive in the correction process and not focus much on every error that is identified. A piece of written work that is full of correction work is de-motivating and usually counter-productive. In as much as possible the learners should be encouraged to make corrections in their own work (Duff, 2000).Difficulties to the learners Language instructing practice often presumes that most of the difficulties that students encounter while learning the language are as a result of the level to which their native language varies from the second language.. An indigenous speaker of Chinese may for instance encounter more difficulties than an indigenous speaker of German, because German is closely related to English more than Chinese is. This may also apply to individuals of any first language intending to study any other language.Language learners commonly make mistakes esp ecially syntax and pronunciation mistakes due to the influence of their first language like mapping its grammatical structure inappropriately onto the second language, pronouncing certain sounds wrongly or with difficulty and confusing certain aspects of the vocabulary, referred to as false friends. This is known as first language transfer or language interference (Richards & Renandya, 2002). Conclusion A good second language instructor is a significant factor when learners are studying a second language.It has generally been agreed that great tutors are those that still recall what it was to be a learner and treat the learners as equals. When teaching a second language, the tutor must establish an open, free and close relationship with each of the learners and motivate the quieter ones or the slow ones to gather enough confident and courage. The teacher should have enough patience and appreciation and an understanding that everyone can make mistakes. Being in a position to teach a second language is the most rewarding job since it involves assisting learners to advance and communicate abroad (Richards & Renandya, 2002). References Abbott, M. (2000). Identifying reliable generalizations for spelling words: The importance of   Ã‚   multilevel analysis. The Elementary School Journal 101(2), 233-245 Corder, S. P. (2001). The significance of learners' errors. International Review of Applied   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Linguistics, 5, 160-170. Duff, P. (2000). Repetition in foreign language classroom interaction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Oxford, R. (1993).Research on second language learning strategies. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 13:175-187 Richards, J. C. & Renandya, W. A. (2002). Methodology in language teaching: an anthology of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   current practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Tarone, E., Bigelow, M. & Hansen, K. (2009). Literacy and Second Language Oracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press Tarone, E., & Swierzbin, B. (2009). Exploring Learner Language. Oxford: Oxford University    Press

A Mother Daughter Relationship Essay

Most parents expect many things from their children but most importantly wish their children to be successful and happy, but parents hold different expectations based on their child’s gender. The expectations that both mothers have are common because both of them have daughters. These differences in expectations of gender can be seen in literature such as Girl by Jamaica Kincaid where she will list everything a women is expected of doing in the house and in Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? by Joyce Carol Oates, the mother argues with her daughter to be more like her sister which is portrayed to be perfect. Both of these mothers have high expectation in their daughters and show them tough love in their parenting. Mothers expect more from their daughters to be successful and by satisfying gender roles that society has made for them. Both mothers in the literature show their interest in their daughters by pleasing certain gender roles. In Girl we can tell her mother is listing what her daughter is expected to do in the house to become the perfect housewife and she must also act a certain way into becoming a lady. In Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? Connie’s mother always compares her to her sister June; the mother favors June over Connie and wants her to be more like her sister. June is everything her mother wants in a daughter while Connie is not. â€Å"A traditional gender role orientation emphasizes differences between men and women and assumes that each sex has a natural affinity to particular behaviors. Those who maintain a traditional gender role orientation are likely to be influenced by the rules and rituals of the generations that came before them, by their parents and grandparents† (Blackstone 335). This quote from Amy Blackstone explains that gender roles are affiliated with previous generations of the family, which can indicate that the mothers are passing down to their daughters what they have learned from their childhood with their own mothers. Mothers often want their daughters to follow their footsteps and have certain types of criteria that have to be met by them. In most cases, this creates a communication barrier between the  two and often leading them to have conflict among their relationship. We see this happening more in the literature of Girl when her mother states â€Å" this is how you iron your father’s khaki pants so that they don’t have a crease†¦ this is how you sweep a corner; this is how you sweep a whole house; this is how you sweep a yard† (Kincaid 47). The mother teaches her daughter how to iron and clean the way she knows how to, implicating that she must follow her mothers footsteps because this is the right way and that she must do it when one day she gets married or has a house. But not all daughters have the same opinions as their mothers, which can result in having a communication barrier as we can see in Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? the story states â€Å"Connie’s mother kept picking at her until Connie wished her mother was dead and she herself was dead and it was all over.† (Oates 324). Connie’s mother picks on her daughter so much in the story that it makes Connie not want to have any relationship with her mother by wishing both of them death. According to Estherann Grace who has a masters degree in adolescent medicine said, â€Å"The strength of the mother/daughter bond contributes to the intensity of the emotional response both negatively and positively. This closeness stems somewhat from the expected psychological identification of a developing adolescent becoming a woman, following in her mother’s footsteps. The teenager needs to clarify the differences to establish her own identity.† (Grace 414) In order to solve their differences Connie needs to talk to her mother about the problems they both have and talk to each other about their point of views and figure out the underlying message why her mother and her don’t get along. Both mothers from the short stories show tough love for their daughters as one of their parenting techniques. For Girl the mother tells her daughter â€Å"on Sundays try to walk like a lady and not like the slut you are so bent on becoming† (Kincaid 47), she tells this to her daughter because she secretly cares about how her daughter will turn out to be as a woman. The mother uses a form of reverse psychology so her daughter can prove her wrong that she will not become a slut that her mother thinks she will become. In Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? her mother proclaims to Connie saying â€Å"Why don’t you keep your room clean like your sister? How’ve you got your hair fixed- what the hell stinks? Hair spray? You don’t see your sister using that junk.† (Oates 323) The mother complains to Connie to her because she wants her to become  just like her older daughter since she seems to believe that her oldest became successful and that Connie is doing the complete opposite of the mother’s expectations. But in Connie’s point of view she rebels to being anything like her sister because she has her own personality and doesn’t want to follow someone else’s footsteps. According to Gregory Patterson â€Å"Kids need more parental involvement. Whether it’s in setting high expectations and then holding children accountable, or by being closely and continuously involved as you set and hold high standards.†(Patterson 4) With this being said, Patterson would approve of the relationships that both mothers have with their daughters because it makes the parent become more involved with their children lives since its giving the child to hold high expectations of the parent which later on will lead to positive outcomes to the child. Although these mothers have unique ways of parenting, other parents might say this type of parenting can result of psychological abuse to their daughters. Psychological abuse is the parent’s behavior that can aggressively harm their child’s mental health (McCoy and Keen 123). We can see this psychological abuse for both literatures, in Girl her mother refers to the daughter to be turning into a slut, which will deliberately hurt the daughter’s feelings. Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? the mother tells Connie to stop acting like she’s pretty because she’s not. Connie states that these words are familiar to her indicating that her mother verbally attacks her often which results into a psychological abuse. As stated by Monica McCoy and Stefanie Keen, â€Å"parents with good intentions may become verbally aggressive†¦whether the parent deliberately ignored the child, intended to harm the child with harsh words, or behaved out of ignorance.† (McCoy and Keen 125) The quote explains that even parents who have good intentions to their child can still accidently harm them with harsh words that can cause the psychological abuse towards the children. In conclusion, mothers expect more from their daughters to succeed in life with what the mother has provided to them varying from everyday life to academics and also by satisfying gender roles that society has made for women. While some of these gender roles can be protested by their daughters, it will most likely create communication barriers between their mothers relationship and cause several problems between the two. As a parenting  technique both the mothers have portrayed themselves as very harsh and heartless mothers but in all realty this points out that they have good intentions for being so strict on their daughters. Both mothers use though love in their parenting to show what their daughters are expected of and to hopefully guide their daughters in life with what the mother has taught them. Works Cited Blackstone, Amy. â€Å"Gender Roles and Society.† Human Ecology: An Encyclopedia of Children, Families, Communities, and Environments, (2003) 335-338 Grace, Estherann. â€Å"Mothers and Daughters: The Challenge of Communicating.† Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 19.6 (2006): 413-414. Keen, Stefanie M., and Monica McCoy. Child Abuse and Neglect. New York and London: Psychology Press, 2014. Print. Kincaid, Jamaica. Girl. Backpack Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. Ed. X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. 4th ed. New York: Person Longman, 2012. 46-50 Oates, Joyce Carol. Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been. Backpack Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. Ed. X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. 4th ed. New York: Person Longman, 2012. 323-337 Patterson, Gregory A. â€Å"Tough Love is Two Words – and Two Necessities.† Phi Delta Kappan, 93.5 (2012): 4.

What is employment relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

What is employment relationship - Essay Example A good stable working environment, encouraged by good employment relationship, is critical as it has noteworthy implications on the health and well-being of employees. It is an imperative characteristic in any success of any business or organization within the service economy. Service economy is the term used to refer to the comparative importance of service when presenting products. Whilst many people look on the jobs created by the information economy as "high tech", in actuality and in many respects it is merely new levels of de-skilling and pay differentials. Some parts of the new information economy, such as telesales or call centres, and some information processing jobs such as web content production, have been likened to the sweatshops of traditional manufacturing industries. These jobs even have a high job insecurity ratio. As Belt, Richardson and Webster (2000) put it "Call centre operations do not constitute an 'industry' in the commonly accepted sense, but it is considered sensible to refer to call centres as an industry." So for all required purposes call centres are an excellent example of how employment relationships function within the service economy. Call centre agents are supposed to be friendly cheerful and helpful as we as customers tend to expect this kind of behavior from interactive service workers. This was perceived as "emotional labour" by Hochschild (1983) because a certain degree of emotional investment was required to produce the desired effect. It seems to be a new way to exploit the workers. Van Maanen and Kunda (1989) have said that "organizational culture management, only seem to want to mask managerial attempts to control not only what employees say and do but feel as well." Emotional management seems to have been organized even more efficiently and pushed to the next level. Emotional labour increases stress and decreases job satisfaction immensely. This is proved in the study of five call centres conducted by Deery, Iverson and Walsh in 2000, where "excessive demands on emotional labour lead to a higher propensity of stress, anxiety and emotional exhaustion amongst call centre agents". In her book: Human Resource Management and Occupational Health and Safety, Carol Boyd (2003) has said, "the role of call centre agents is dictated by the immediacy of the production process and a dependency on employees' personal characteristics to deliver high-quality service" and "this is where various techniques aimed at maintaining their sweetness will be deployed". Now thanks to the leap of technology managerial control can even delve and investigate every tiny detail of the call centre agents' work, offering scrupulous and immediate particulars on each agent's activities. The monitoring of the communications and activities of employees in the workplace in the UK mus t, however, be balanced with requirements under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights; organizations must have regard to the private lives of individuals. Tight call-handling times and monitoring combine with performance targets to accelerate the pace of work, without gaining much job satisfaction. This tendency to micro manage results in a sense of self, which is vital to be lost; when agents feel that they are no longer in control of their lives and their

[Australian Undergraduate] Important Finance group project Assignment

[Australian Undergraduate] Important Finance group project - Assignment Example The construction would incur maintenance and utility cost from the drainage and the dike systems, the solid wastes and the recycling of materials that were not used after completion of the construction process. Besides, other cost associated with maintenance and utilities include the sewer system, water supply, operations and maintenance, constructions of the systems that still need polishing up and the salaries and benefits of the employees. The average daily cost is represented in the diagram below for all the utilities. These costs represent estimates computed for the first three months to obtain the daily cost in the first 90 days. However, it is likely that the amount may be slightly higher during the first one month. The values will fall thereafter with the third and fourth months and even subsequent duration recording lower values owing to the decreasing utilities and maintenance requirement. The breakeven analysis helps in the determination of the point at which the management can know whether the business attains a level that it makes neither losses nor profits (Tucker, 1963). It is also the point that the cost of production for the business equals the sales, hence no profit. Although breakeven is a firsthand tool for the assessment of the health status of the business by showing how the uncertainties may be critical for the venture, it does not capture market dynamics. Every market should be considered as dynamic because the trends may vary depending on several conditions. The changing trends dictate pricing and changes in the prices at large. Breakeven analysis does not take into accounts these trends, so it may give a general outlook that has an impact on expectations (Tucker, 1963). Since breakeven analysis involves adjustment of variables so that the values can give a figure of $0 NPV, and that each variable undergoes adjustment one at a time, it does not capture the possible effects that may influence two or more variables together.

Does God exist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Does God exist - Essay Example Fundamentally, Anselm seeks to provide a priori proof, which is to negate the view presented of the fool in the Bible who says there is no God in Psalm 14:1 (Princeton University para 2). Therefore, he works from the angle of trying to present the arguments and proofs that an ideal or wise person should have. This implies that in Anselms views, a wise and a good person will be one who can go into himself, evaluate things and see and accept that God exists and have a feeling of his attributes and features which are not so obvious or clear to the average mortal. In Anselms earlier work, Monologion, he states three arguments to prove the existence of God. He first thinks that there is something above all goodness and that is a superior good. He believes that things are good in different way and they all go through a supreme good thing. That thing is good in itself and is the source of the good things. Therefore, since other thing cannot be greater than the good thing through itself, that thing must be supremely good. Anselm therefore concludes that the supremely good thing is also supremely great. There is, therefore, one thing that is supremely good and supremely great. In other words, supreme among all existing things. The second argument states a similar idea that all existence must come from one ultimate cause. If there are several causes then they either must exist independently or support each other. However, if those causes exist by supporting each other mutually, they cannot exist by causing what they supported. Therefore, if they exist independently, it means that they share a common power and become an ultimate cause. Finally, Anselm argues that there must exist one thing that every existing things exists through. To explain this, he illustrates his idea as follows; things must exist through something. And something might be one or more than one. If there is more than one thing, either they

Civil Rights & Civil Liberties Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Civil Rights & Civil Liberties - Essay Example In this case, political rights are lined up with other civil rights and liberty Civil rights in America are enshrined in the Civil Act of 1964. The Act was enacted during the presidency of John Kennedy, who rose to power in the year 1960. A large number of contemporary have a bill of rights or a constitutional document that seeks and enumerate to guarantee civil rights. In the united state of America, several constitutional amendments have been effected to ensure that every person enjoys civil rights to unlimited levels. In addition, additional clauses have been enacted to the 1964 Act to ensure that the government of the day does not undermine them (Baker, Thomas, 2006). During the 2008 run-off for presidential elections, the then senator for Illinois delivered a highly spirited campaign speech that was full of charming promises. Political analysts declared that should the pledges embedded in the speech be actualized, the Americans would experience excellent political and economic atmosphere. In the speech, commonly known as ‘’a more perfect union’’, Obama explained the electorates the steps he would take to reduce the poverty index in the united state of America. To eliminate the gap between the poor and the rich, Obama outlined the tax measures that his government would implement. The policy would exempt the poor from bearing tax burden, and hence more income would be available for their use (Baker, Thomas, 2006). Concerning the war in Iraq, the then-senator advocated for immediate withdraw of American troops. In his speech, he asserted that a long lasting solution would be established through consultative engagements, not through military operation. In addition, Obama promised good working condition for all workers and increased social security for retiree. Furthermore, he promised to improve the economy so as to cut down on unemployment and reformed heath sector. To a large extent, the

Cultural Competency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cultural Competency - Essay Example Consequently, the changing cultural dynamics in the schools and society as a whole do call for a new approach to coming up with a culturally sensitive learning environment where each school going student feels welcome and significant. As a result, the changing cultural dynamics do require setting up of culturally competent schools where all students feel welcome in aiding them to participate fully in the learning environment and in promoting cohesiveness among students in these schools. Cultural competency in schools has emerged as one of the best ways through which to eliminate racial and ethnic differences in health care settings (Klotz, 2006). As the country becomes a diverse nation made of various cultures, clinicians, and other healthcare providers have to meet clients with broad perspectives on health, which are usually determined by the cultural and social inclinations of individuals. As such, clinicians have to meet patients who present their symptoms differently from what is illustrated in books. Moreover, these patients could have poor English proficiency, different expectations on care and some of whom do not adhere to recommendations as provided by the health provider. In such settings, a clinician has to be well trained on the best approaches to interact and offer quality care to such patients despite the different perspectives they hold. Considering that provider-patient communication is usually hinged on patient satisfaction, the possibility to adher e to instructions and the final outcomes (Betancourt et al., 2006), it would be expected that when there exist social-cultural differences between the patient and the clinician, the health outcome could be poor. Poor coordination in the clinician-patient relationship would lead to poor healthcare delivery to the population. As such, cultural competency in health related disciplines could help in improving care

Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Journal - Essay Example I did not particularly like the essay in terms of proving its point with scientific evidence, but I do agree with its basic argument that rational punishment, even and particularly in the form of the occasional spanking, is beneficial for a child’s well-being as its replaces the parent in the role of authority. I have been interested in the creation of alternative power for a long time and wind generators are one of my major areas of interest. I have my own concerns regarding them, such as what will happen to wind patterns like the jetstream if enough of these towers are erected. I base this opinion on the effects that have taken place at Niagara Falls as a result of the construction of large buildings that prevent the wind from doing its job. The author uses logos combined with authority to argue his three main points against wind power, indicating that these are not exclusive of any other concern but merely some of the more pressing issues that must be addressed. I liked the article because I thought it was very straightforward in its presentation of facts and concerns while not getting too detailed for the amount of space available. This essay was of interest to my life because I am at least as affected by the capitalistic world I live in as the author of this story. The difference is that he is able to get away to a silent retreat when he wants to and I am usually pretty much trapped within the noise and bustle of the city. I don’t have a cabin to go to but I can certainly appreciate the value he places on his. The author uses pathos and metaphor to create a mood of quiet celebration of something that we usually take for granted. By appealing to the emotions of his readers and associating the falling rain and the sounds it makes to a festival, the author is able to foster a sense of appreciation for the free rain that still

Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Responses to Warm Whirlpool Treatment Article

Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Responses to Warm Whirlpool Treatment - Article Example The human body in normal conditions has a temperature set point of 37 degrees Centigrade, which may get altered during the circadian rhythm, after sleep loss, during hypobaria, and subsequent to dehydration. The stability in temperature that the body maintains is achieved by maintaining a balance between the rate of heat production that occurs mainly through metabolism and rate of heat lost or gained from the environment. Normal rules of thermodynamics are involved in this transfer of heat from the body and to the body. Differences between the temperature the skin and the environment is the governing factor in the thermodynamics involved (Lloyd, 1994). The thermodynamics involved in the attempt of the body to maintain the setpoint temperature of 37 degrees Centigrade is responsible for the thermal stimulus on hemodynamics, and it is for this reason that causes Ishijima and Togawa, 1999, to maintain that bathing in hot water puts stress on the heart.  The human body in normal condit ions has a temperature set point of 37 degrees Centigrade, which may get altered during the circadian rhythm, after sleep loss, during hypobaria, and subsequent to dehydration. The stability in temperature that the body maintains is achieved by maintaining a balance between the rate of heat production that occurs mainly through metabolism and rate of heat lost or gained from the environment. Normal rules of thermodynamics are involved in this transfer of heat from the body and to the body. Differences between the temperature the skin and the environment is the governing factor in the thermodynamics involved (Lloyd, 1994). The thermodynamics involved in the attempt of the body to maintain the setpoint temperature of 37 degrees Centigrade is responsible for the thermal stimulus on hemodynamics, and it is for this reason that causes Ishijima and Togawa, 1999, to maintain that bathing in hot water puts stress on the heart.   According to Press, 1991, this stress on the heart originate s from the increased pressure from the water causing vasodilation, profuse perspiration leading to a decrease in the extracellular volume of blood, increase in hematocrit levels with shortened clotting times, and an increase in the consumption of oxygen, due to the conditions of the environment saunas, spas, and hot tub baths. This raises the possibility of cardiac arrests resulting in patients during their use of saunas, spas and hot water tubs, with particular emphasis on individuals with a history of cardiovascular problems (Press, 1991). Such an understanding of the hemodynamics associated with an individual in the environmental conditions of hot tub baths, has caused physicians to warn individuals with elevated blood pressure levels and cardiac problems on the possible risks they face in hot water baths (Shin, Wilson & Wilson, 2003). Nagasawa, et al, 2001, points out that there is the risk of sudden death from hot water baths as such deaths have been associated with bathing in hot water.   This study aims to answer the question of how heart rate and blood pressure changes during a full body warm whirlpool treatment. The purpose of the study is to observe changes in the heart rate and blood pressure that occur with a warm whirlpool treatment as against the heart rate and blood pressure at rest and hypothesize the reason why certain special populations are advised precautions in the use of warm whirlpool treatments or hot tub baths. The study revolves around the hypothesis that heart rate will increase with warm whirlpool treatment and there will be a decrease in blood pressure.

Juicy essay Essay Example for Free

Juicy essay Essay In the song â€Å"Juicy†, by Notorious BIG, also known as Biggie Smalls, there is a main theme of rising from poverty and entering into wealth. Wealth in this sense not only means material things, but it also makes reference to intangibles such as stability for himself and his mother. He begins by noting material things including: â€Å"condos in Queens,† â€Å"putting 5 Karats in my baby girls ear,† â€Å"lunches, brunches, interviews by the pool,† â€Å"50 inch screens, money green leather sofa, two cars a limousine with a chauffeur. † These material things highlight significance in his life because in comparison to his childhood, they are infinitely superior. His childhood consisted of â€Å"eatin sardines for dinner,† being â€Å"considered a common thief,† â€Å"dropping out of high school,† and living in public housing. Furthermore, Biggie’s life was immensely changed in a different aspect. Along with his economic wealth, he gained stability for himself and his mother and made her proud of him. He states, â€Å"My mother loves to show me off, of course, smiles every time my face is up in The Source.† Biggie also states that he celebrated every day because of his hard work and determination he was able to create a better opportunities for himself and his family. In the song â€Å"Juicy† there is a reoccurring theme of rising from the rags to the riches and never giving up on a dream that you set out to accomplish. Notorious BIG reflects on his life while growing up and always being told, â€Å"you’ll never make it.† In the song he says, â€Å"Considered a fool because I dropped out of high school, stereotypes of a black male misunderstood, and its all good.† He dropped out of school so that he could continue to make music and pursue a career. While growing up in poverty, Biggie was often faced with the option to sell drugs or stay in school. When he dropped out of school at the age of 17, he became a drug dealer so he could make some money with the ultimate goal of becoming a rapper. In the song he says, â€Å"to all the people that lived above the buildings that I was hustlin in front of that called the police on me when I was just tryin to make some money to feed my daughters, and all the niggaz in the struggle, you know what Im sayin?† When he was growing up there were things he had to do to get by, there were things that he had to do that weren’t always legal, but he did  what he needed to provide for his family. Another important part of the song was when said, â€Å"I let my tape rock ‘till my tape popped†. He didnt give up on his dream of becoming a rapper. No matter how many people told him he couldnt do it, or he wouldnt last, he never gave up and he continued to give out his tapes. Biggie’s â€Å"tape popped† when his song was number one on Billboard Magazine. This led him to being signed by Bad Boy Records, which was owned by fellow East Coast Rapper, Sean â€Å"Diddy† Combs. After becoming rich and making it in the rap game, Biggie became a different person. He didnt know what to do with the wealth he had and flaunted it in the wrong ways. In the song he says, â€Å"Girls used to diss me, now they writing letters because they miss me.† When he said that they used to diss him, he was referring to how people that were close to him changed because they wanted to take advantage of him, and people that weren’t close to him wanted to be friends and benefit from the wealth he had. In this part of the song he was referring to how wealth can corrupt people. He remained unfazed, kept his circle small, and still pursued his dream of becoming a famous rapper. An excerpt from the song, after Notorious became popular, â€Å"Living life without fear, putting 5 karats in my baby girl’s ear, lunches, brunches, interviews by the pool† This was an important transformation in his life because he went from a gangster on the streets and slinging drugs, to a rich rap star. Another quote from the song was, â€Å"Phone bill about 2 G’s flat, no need to worry my accountant handles that.† With all the wealth that he accumulated, he was carefree living. He went from struggling to put food on the table for his family to letting businessmen handle all his financial decisions. He had seen the way that wealth could change people. Also in the song he mentioned, â€Å"50 inch screen, money green leather sofa, got two rides, a limousine with a chauffer.† The way that Biggie spent his money was typical to any other person that made it from rags to riches. He went from wondering if he would have a meal to eat, to spending money on lavish things. The end of Biggie’s career came on March 3, 1997 when he was shot several times outside of an album release party in Los Angeles. He came out to a shoot music video for the song â€Å"Hypnotize† off his album â€Å"Ready To Die†. With the past beef that he had with west coast rappers, the trip out to California wasn’t encouraged. He died six days later in the hospital. Through out Biggie’s life, there were a couple strong  characteristics that he left behind. He left behind a strong work ethic with an attitude that nobody could out work him. When he died, it was a tough loss in the rap world because he had been very influential amongst rappers that had come from tough childhoods and lived in tough areas. He was a perfect example of emerging from a life of poverty and becoming successful and extremely wealthy. The Notorious B.I.G. à ¢Ã¯â€šâ‚¬ Juicy Lyrics. Rap Genius. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. http://rapgenius.com/The-notorious-big-juicy-lyrics The Notorious B.I.G. Billboard. Rovi Corporation, 9 Mar. 2010. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. . Duke, Alan. FBI Reveals Documents in Biggie Smalls Death Probe. CNN. CNN, 08 Apr. 2011. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. .

Katharina Reiss Text Typology

Katharina Reiss Text Typology Reiss translation-oriented text-typology provides a systematic approach to translation. More interestingly, it approaches translation at the text level. This essay will examine Reiss typology with focus on Parting the Waters, published in National Geographic, a monthly magazine that borders on science, geography, history and culture. REISS TEXT-TYPOLOGY Reiss sees translation as an act of communication whereby the translator acts as a medium (secondary sender). This presupposes that a message has to be passed across, from the primary sender (source text) to the secondary receiver (target text). The major media are the source language and the target language. The aim here is to produce a target language text that is functionally equivalent to the source language text (Reiss 1971:160). This means the source text should be the consultative point for the translator. In order to achieve this functional equivalence, Reiss proposes a functional approach of text-typology. This approach takes into account the communicative functions of a source text as a basis for translating into the target text. In other words, a target text that does not have the same function as the source text is not entirely a translation, but what Reiss calls transfer (ref here). Reiss text-typology includes a two-phase approach in translating a text: Phase of analysi s and phase of reverbalization. The analysis phase basically involves establishing the text type, genre and style (linguistic form).The phase of analysis is the most important as that is what would inform the translation method to employ. Text-type of Parting the Waters Reiss identifies three text-types according to their communicative function namely: the informative type (communication of content), the expressive type (communication of artistically organised content) and the operative type (communication of content with a persuasive character). There is another hyper-type which she calls the audio-medial text type. This is more of a super-ordinate term for the other three and does not concern the text in question since it is a written text. Parting the Waters can be seen chiefly as an informative text type; first given the context of the text: magazine and second because it gives factual information about a place: Korea, and the geographical events that take place there. The translation strategy recommended in this case by Reiss should thus focus on conveying content. Text variety (genre) of Parting the Waters This stage has to do with the conventions of structure and language adopted by the text. However, Reiss explains that they may differ according to different cultures. The importance of this is to be able to find a functionally equivalent convention in the target text culture. In this light, Parting the Waters is a kind of popular scientific text. This suggests also that it seeks a wider audience other than scientists. This leads to the final stage of analysis: style. Style in Parting the Waters The final stage of analysis has to do with detailed semantic, syntactic and pragmatic analysis of the language use (Reiss 1971:166). Ordinarily, one would expect that when a text is an informative type, even the language used should be such that it is aimed only at giving facts. But that is often not the case, as Reiss herself admits not in one single language do form and function show a 1:1 relation (166). Hence, looking at the text, one would find a similar occurrence. The text has expressive language such as the internal rhymes: tides, divine, divide; of 15 feet. There is also an allusion to a biblical story: not divine interventions, an expression that answers the presupposition in the title itself Parting the Waters. Reiss thus considers this stage of analysis the most important, as the translator is faced with a decisive battle on what would inform the translation: the language or the function of the text. At this point, Reiss posits that if using an equivalent language style m ay weigh on the content of the text, then the translator should stick to the predominant function of the text. Translating Parting the Waters to Yorà ¹bà ¡: limitations Taking into consideration the content-focused function of the text, the translator is expected to employ a method that would achieve the same function as that of the target text by translating according to the sense and meaning (Reiss 1971:167). This suggests that the meaning conveyed by the target text should be equivalent to the meaning in the source text. For this to be achieved, Reiss adds that what is conveyed implicitly in the SL text should be explicated in the TL and vice versa (167). Being a popular science text, and specifically about geography, Parting the Waters has terms such as peninsula, southwestern, mile, width, feet, and spring. While some of them might have some kind of equivalence (i.e. peninsula, mile width) in , a climatic description like spring poses a problem because Yorà ¹bà ¡ neither has a word nor group of words for it. This is basically due to the different weather conditions. The question is: what should the translator convey here? This is important be cause spring as used in the text plays a major role in the content; by telling us when an event takes place. The only alternative here would be to replace the word with the time of the year this season happens in Korea. The problem with this is that it might change the meaning, as the sense of season is different from the calendar year. This aspect of the translation problem seems to call on Nidas gloss translation of formal equivalence, that is, the use of footnotes in order to make the text fully comprehensible (Nida 1964:129). What this means is that Reiss method is not sufficient to solve this translation problem. In talking about divine interventions, the text makes allusion to a biblical story about the Red Sea. This could be because the author had a target audience in mind and presumes they know about the story in the Bible. Although this can also be linked to the use of expressive language, it is however difficult to ignore the fact that this type of language use plays a role in the text- to maintain the interest of the reader. If the original audience for the source text were scientists, there is doubt as to whether expressive language would have been used at all, since all that would be needed are facts. The question is whether or not to include it in the translation. The answer to this is dependent on another question: who are the audience? Sacrificing the expressive form might change the text to an entirely scientific or historic one. This means a different readership, as it may not appeal to a common reader. The problem here is that Reiss method overlooks the fact there is an addresse e for even an informative text type. She acknowledges this only in the text variety stage. Communication itself is not complete without a receiver, in this case the audience. The title, Parting the Waters, also draws attention. It first makes the reader think of the biblical story of the red sea, and then makes a reader assume that is what the text is about. But this effect can only be achieved based on a shared knowledge between the author and the reader about the biblical story of the Red Sea. This assumption too must have been informed by the fact that the author had an audience in mind. However, the author quickly attends to this curiosity and possible misconception by the following opening sentence Tides, not divine interventions, divide Unfortunately, the target language (Yorà ¹bà ¡) audience is a mixture of different religions. In this text the title performs an expressive function, but that is not to say its predominant function is expressive. Since it is an informative text, one would expect again that the title would be informed by the major content being conveyed. But this is not the case. Moreover, attractive titles seem to be a common featu re of this genre. This is also a common feature of Yorà ¹bà ¡ magazines (ref here). The question here is: since content is the aim, should the target title be informed by the content alone and leave the use of expressive language? This of course is possible, as Reiss already advises on ignoring such language use especially if it will weigh on the content. The translation can simply have à pa-Õnà   Ã’kun Korea which means The Path between Korean Waters. The consequence of this however is that it might not appeal to the wider audience except a few, specialists. This brings up again the question: who are the audience? Reiss considers this an appropriate factor only when the function of the target text is different from the source text (Reiss 1971:170). What her typology fails to recognise is that both source and target texts can have the same function (as in the case of Parting the Waters) but different addressees. CONCLUSION While Reiss translation-oriented text-typology provides a systematic method of approaching a translation task, it does not provide a complete solution for some problems in English to Yorà ¹bà ¡ translation of Parting the Waters. This suggests that it is not absolute that a text function will provide a translation strategy. Fawcett (1997: 107) makes this same point: There is simply no necessary link between text function and translation strategy. Just because we have identified a text functiondoes not mean that we are led inexorably to any logical or translation-scientific imperative to take this function as an overriding parameter to which we subordinate our translation decisions. This further suggests that other translation theories are valid and useful to the extent to which they proffer a solution to a translation problem.

Perfect Forward Essay -- essays research papers

The perfect forward for hockey is about 6 foot 2, and is about 220 pounds of muscle. They need a good aerobic and anaerobic system if they are to be at the peak of there performance. A normal forward uses 80% of the ATP-PC system and about 20% of their Lactic Acid system. For them to be at there best they need to train in three different programs: 1. They need an off-season program, which will get them into condition to be conditioned and also improve their strength. 2. They need preseason training with will mainly help them improve their ATP-PC system, and that’s where they’re going to get their explosiveness. 3. This is the in-season training, which is simply used to maintain your muscle endurance, muscle strength, your condition and flexibility. Off-Season is the time when hockey players build their base foundation. There is no coach on your shoulder pushing you to the limit and you need to keep that foundation if you are to compete at a high level. This is the only time of year you have to build on your muscle strength, muscle endurance, flexibility and aerobic conditioning. It usually will take about 6-8 weeks, three to five times a week to be at the peak of your performance, but if you are suffering from injury like a aggravated groin or suck, it may take as long as 12 weeks of base training. Aerobic training is probably one of the most important cause not only does it improve your cardiovascular efficiency and recovery but it allows you to train harder to improve your speed, power and quickness which will help you in high intensity games. It also allows you to repeat the movements. All players have done suicides at one point or another and as it goes on your legs start to feel like dead weights, which is because of an inferior aerobic system. If you have a good base between suicides your muscle will replenish themselves, exactly like during a whistle in hockey. This is essential if you want to compete at a high intensity. For this you will need train the system and by doing so you can do some in-line skating, rowing, cycling or even water running. It is suggested that you use more then one of these and at best do as many as possible. The more strength you have available to perform hockey skills, the more likely you are to perform those skills at a high level. For example a weak set of leg muscle result in poor starts and stops. Therefore the more y... ...ating hard to each line stopping then starting and do the same at all three middle lines. Then we will skate around the rink hard at 80% to work on the Lactic Acid system and help improve our speed. These drills should last about 40 minutes. - Now the forwards will work on their shot by rapid fire. Line 10 pucks up and shot after another on net. Do this 3 times and it should take roughly 5 minutes. - This should be followed by pass and shot were there are 5 pucks in the corner with the coach and 2 players out front in a battle to get open for a pass to shot on net. This drill improves power because you have to outmuscle and out skate the other player in order to accomplish this. It will take 10 minutes with a few breaks. - Before the Stretch at the end a cool down skate should be done in order to relax the muscles before the stretch. This will take about 15 minutes for both. There you have it another 52-week hockey training year as gone by and you were the best forward you could’ve been. Now its time for Postseason workouts which mainly rely on eating lots of protein and getting at least 8 hours of sleep a night. In no time it will be time to begin training once again.

The Ideology of Scientology and Kabbala :: Religion Scientology Kabbala Religious Essays

The Ideology of Scientology and Kabbala A leader of the Church of Scientology, L. Ron Hubbard, once wrote, â€Å"A culture is only as great as its dreams, and its dreams are dreamed by artists (3).† Alternative religions have had a dramatic impact on today’s culture. In the past few years, Hollywood has become â€Å"the cast of religious fads (2).† Many famous people such as Madonna, Roseanne, and Courtney Love have become products of the alternative religion, Kabbalahism. Others like John Travolta and Tom Cruise are well known, devote Scientologists. These two religions, Kabbalahism and Scientology have been the leading alternative religions and the cultural phenomenon of the 90’s. Our culture, Hollywood especially, has seen the biggest impact of this new phenomenon through the media. Christianity has very defined principles. They believe in one god who is an all knowing, all loving, all forgiving, and perfect being. Jesus sacrificed his life on the cross for our sins. They believe we must live our lives striving to be Christ in hope that our souls will live in eternity, Heaven. Kabbalahism, too, states that individuals must always try to walk the way of the Creator, be attached to him and all one’s thoughts should be in regard to him. Yet, Kabbalahists question the â€Å"Divine force.† Kabbalahists do not believe in an opposing evil force to God, or as they call it, â€Å"sitra achrah.† They believe all that we experience, both good and evil, is a direct result of the Creator. Kabbalahists feel that if God is the divine force whom created us all then why does he not show himself to us (1). Their belief is that life would be much easier if the Creator was visible in every way. Any doubts we once held of his existence would diminish, and we would realize the reason of our creation. We would be able to see his reactions to any of our negative mannerisms or behaviors. Our questions of why he causes our troubles would be answered and we would be able to change ourselves in accordance to do his will and get on the path to eternity. Through this visual perception of the Creator, we would be able to live by his example. There would not be a need for educators.

Canterbury Tales - Criticism of the Church in the Summoner’s Tale and t

Criticism of the Catholic Church in the Summoner’s Tale and the Prioress’s Tale Many pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales held a religious position. Some of these people’s personal ideas have caused debates and criticism over Chaucer’s opinion of the Catholic Church. Critics have discussed the ideas that were presented both subtly and openly. Two of the pilgrims and their tales will be discussed: the Prioress and the Pardoner. Both of these tales offer points of criticism in the Catholic Church. The Prioress introduces herself as being like a child who does not know many words. She is going to try to tell a tale as best as she can. This child-like language can be seen through the whole tale. The Prioress speaks her tale in a fluent, sweet tone. Her innocence, like a child’s, can be seen as she tells her tale. To see the entire criticism of the Prioress’s tale, the General Prologue must first be recounted. The Prioress was described as a very correct lady; all of her actions showed a very refined lady. She was also portrayed as being very sympathetic, â€Å"She wolde wepe, if that she saugh a mous kaught in a trappe, if it were deed or bledde.† (lines 144-146) She was sentimental enough to feed animals the best food she had. Thus, the Prioress was presented as a very compassionate, well-mannered lady. However, in her tale, the Prioress has an obvious dislike for the Jewish. She relates them to the devil, â€Å"Our firste foo, the serpent Sathanas, that hath in Jues herte his waspes nest...† (Lines 558-59) She describes the Jews as â€Å"cursed† and â€Å"guilty.† She mentions the history of the Jewish as notoriously bad, â€Å"O yonge Hugh of Lyncoln, slayn also with cursed Jewes, ... ...ummoner’s tale more openly criticizes the church, but the Prioress’s faults are fairly easy to recognize once the story is looked at closely. Chaucer used his tales to confront questionable acts of the Catholic Church. Works Cited and Consulted Ames, Ruth M. God’s Plenty Chaucer’s Christian Humanism. Loyola University Press: Chicago, 1984. Colby, Elbridge. English Catholic Poets Chaucer to Dryden. The Bruce Publishing Company: Milwaukee, 1936. Ellis, Roger. Patterns of Religious Narrative in the Canterbury Tales. Banes & Noble: Totowa, 1986. Patterson, Lee. "The living witnesses of our redemption: Martyrdom and imitation in Chaucer's Prioress's Tale.† Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies. Durham; Fall 2001. 507-560 Reiff, Raychel Haugrud. â€Å"Chaucer’s The Pardoner’s Tale.† The Explicator. Washington, Summer 1999. 855-58 Canterbury Tales - Criticism of the Church in the Summoner’s Tale and t Criticism of the Catholic Church in the Summoner’s Tale and the Prioress’s Tale Many pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales held a religious position. Some of these people’s personal ideas have caused debates and criticism over Chaucer’s opinion of the Catholic Church. Critics have discussed the ideas that were presented both subtly and openly. Two of the pilgrims and their tales will be discussed: the Prioress and the Pardoner. Both of these tales offer points of criticism in the Catholic Church. The Prioress introduces herself as being like a child who does not know many words. She is going to try to tell a tale as best as she can. This child-like language can be seen through the whole tale. The Prioress speaks her tale in a fluent, sweet tone. Her innocence, like a child’s, can be seen as she tells her tale. To see the entire criticism of the Prioress’s tale, the General Prologue must first be recounted. The Prioress was described as a very correct lady; all of her actions showed a very refined lady. She was also portrayed as being very sympathetic, â€Å"She wolde wepe, if that she saugh a mous kaught in a trappe, if it were deed or bledde.† (lines 144-146) She was sentimental enough to feed animals the best food she had. Thus, the Prioress was presented as a very compassionate, well-mannered lady. However, in her tale, the Prioress has an obvious dislike for the Jewish. She relates them to the devil, â€Å"Our firste foo, the serpent Sathanas, that hath in Jues herte his waspes nest...† (Lines 558-59) She describes the Jews as â€Å"cursed† and â€Å"guilty.† She mentions the history of the Jewish as notoriously bad, â€Å"O yonge Hugh of Lyncoln, slayn also with cursed Jewes, ... ...ummoner’s tale more openly criticizes the church, but the Prioress’s faults are fairly easy to recognize once the story is looked at closely. Chaucer used his tales to confront questionable acts of the Catholic Church. Works Cited and Consulted Ames, Ruth M. God’s Plenty Chaucer’s Christian Humanism. Loyola University Press: Chicago, 1984. Colby, Elbridge. English Catholic Poets Chaucer to Dryden. The Bruce Publishing Company: Milwaukee, 1936. Ellis, Roger. Patterns of Religious Narrative in the Canterbury Tales. Banes & Noble: Totowa, 1986. Patterson, Lee. "The living witnesses of our redemption: Martyrdom and imitation in Chaucer's Prioress's Tale.† Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies. Durham; Fall 2001. 507-560 Reiff, Raychel Haugrud. â€Å"Chaucer’s The Pardoner’s Tale.† The Explicator. Washington, Summer 1999. 855-58

Leadership in Sport Context Essay

Leadership is hard to specifically define, roles and attributes change to adapt to the environment and context needed. George and Jones define leadership as ‘ the exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization’ (2002,pg. 375). This definition can be broken down with two definitions; Firstly exerting influence over other members and second aiding in a group or organization achieve its goals. ‘Leadership is something everyone would like to claim as a personal attribute, but it is very difficult to get any consensus on quite what it means’. (Weightman, 2004, pg. 129) Many theories and models have been developed to discover different approaches to leadership aiming to identify different traits and characteristics thought needed to be a good leader. In this portfolio I am going to explore different leadership approaches and attributes within the context of sport. Through examples of current lead ers in sport I hope to identify similarities to theoretical evidence. Sport is a disciplined activity that demonstrates a lot of role models for leadership, not just athletes, a lot of jobs within the sport sector include leadership qualities. What makes a leader? The debate between is a leader born or made has opened up a lot of questions to what the attributes of a good leader are. Agreeing that a leader is influential and needs to inspire through organizing change makes us ponder weather traits of a leader are in their personalities or a skill you can acquire over time. Often leaders are associated with having certain personality traits that highlight them as an admirable person. Davis (1972) found the four general traits related to leadership success were: * Intelligence- leaders are found to have high intelligence than their followers * Social Maturity- self-assurance and self- respect and can handle a wide variety of social situations * Achievement drive- found to have a strong drive to get things done * Human- Relations attitudes- leaders know that they rely on other people to get things done, and therefore interested in their team members This traits model focuses on the personality that the leader has on contrast to the job that needs to be done. Agreeing that traits above would aid an individual to take control and lead others in order to influence, further research found the context in what your leading was equally as important. Building on Davis’s model it is important for a leader to be a people person that can withhold authority in a variety of situations, but also with the ability to display their views to a variety of people in intention to influence and inspire. Davis amongst others were previously unsuccessful in showing theoretical evidences that proved common personality traits or qualities. It was soon found more realistic analyses would be to consider the functions a leader demonstrate in order to fulfill his task specific to the context. Sport can be individual or team based but will still involve numerous people. A leadership model discovered in 1982 demonstrates the need of three leadership functions I found present in most sport leaders. These are: the task to be accomplished together, maintaining social cohesion of the group and individual needs of team members. This model shows the three independent functions and how they overlap to form a leadership style that focuses on achieving the outcome of the leader in this case success for a sports team or individual. If the task fails or performed badly, there is diminished satisfaction for the individual and the group tends to fall apart. If the group lacks unity, this will also affect performance. If the individual is discontented, then he or she will not give his or her best performance. This emphasizes the essential of unity of leadership, demonstrating a single action by a leader may influence all areas, and is specific to a sport context. Example Sven- Goran Eriksson- team manager of various football teams (including England) (www.guardian.co.uk) Sven admirable leadership displays most of Davis personality traits alongside achieving success for himself and various teams. Sven’s cosmopolitan background gives him an advantage within a wide audience of players and is well known for his expertise within football. Despite not getting too attached to people, that enforces authority; he creates empathy and trust within all he leads. A strong attribute is his diplomatic approach, he is seen to support and value the work of others. Demonstrating his ability in leading various teams to success he relates to Adair’s model. Maintaining a good cohesion between the team is very important within football but he doesn’t neglect the individual players needs. He implements their opinion into making good decisions for the team as a whole to lead them to success. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership is best describes a leader who effects followers who are intended to trust, admire and respect. They are known for following and seeing through a personal vision whilst gaining trust of supporters. James Macgregor Burns introduced a concept of transformational leadership in his book Leadership in 1978. He defines ‘leaders and followers make each other to advance to a higher level of moral and motivation. Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are able to inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions and motivations to work towards common goals’ (pg. 203, 2012). A sporting example of a transformation leader is Paula Radcliffe. Paula relates heavily to a later theory developed by Bernard M. Bass. Bass’s Transformational Leadership Theory He suggested leadership is defined as the impact it has on followers Burns identified 3 ways in which leaders transform their followers * Increasing their awareness of task importance and value * Getting them to focus first on team of organizational goals, rather than their own interests * Activating there higher-order needs Agreeing that people will follow a person who inspires them. Such individual needs to have a vision and passion and quest to achieve great things. ‘She puts all her energy and time in quest to be the best distance runner in the world’ (www.bbcsport.com) (www.sportsjournalists.co.uk) Yet to win an Olympic medal, all due to injury, she has brought the women’s marathon running to a new level and pushed the limits where no other women have gone. Paula supported many charities, alongside the progression of keen runners during her career. In 2004 she inspired many when joining Jonathan Edwards on an Olympic Special Millionaire, raising  £64,000 for charity. Excluding her physical achievements but she has been recognized for her personality and good sportsmanship through a number of awards. (Taken from my presentation) Ethical Leadership â€Å"Rowe (1997) points out, ethics can be taught in two very different ways. It can be taught using the models of absolute values, or as theologians and philosophers call them ‘ first principles’- That is, the absolute right and wrong ways of doing things. But it can also be taught in terms of how we all have our own way of seeing things. According to this view, values are relative to individuals and the situations in which they find themselves- the right way depends on the context†. Ethics pays an important part in sport for it is the discipline in rules and regulations that gives the entitlement to win and loose competition. Current competition requires a lot of testing prior, during and post competition in order to detect various methods of cheating. Many sports could be seen as unethical due to bad press of officiators, rules and regulations. The importance of ethics in sports defines giving everyone an equal opportunity showing no favouritism or discrimination. Paula highly demonstrates the traits of an ethical leader. Her career has consisted of fighting defend the fair-ness and reputation of the sport. ‘Most athletes were clean and we’re increasing becoming un-happy at the way the sport was being portrayed’ (www.paularadcliffe.com) Proving her ethical leadership qualities I have related Paula to the below model. This model states seven habits that a discovered commonly in ethical leaders. Seven Habits of Strong Ethical Leaders- Stephen R. Covey 1. Strong Personal Character 2. Passion to do right 3. Proactive Behavior 4. Stakeholder interest in mind 5. Recognition of their values as role models 6. Awareness that their decision making should be transparent 7. Holistic view of human beings and firm’s ethical culture Paula’s willingness to stand up for her rights and correct the sport permanently for others, was demonstrated by launched her campaign against ‘drugs in sport’ Despite the amount of drug tests required, it was discovered that the system was not capable of detecting the most effect and abused doping product using in running. She quotes ‘fear is no reason not to do what is right’ (www.paularadcliffe.com) In 2001 at Edmonton she held up a sign saying ‘EPO cheats out’. This was particularly aimed at a competitor that had been tested and found guilty of the blood doping, yet the result was over turned because the French testing authorities did not adhere to IAAF protocol. (www.paularadcliffe.com/gallery/images/08.jpg) Does Gender Effect Leadership? Sport is frequently seen as a masculine dominated sector. â€Å"Sport has been demonstrated to help some women achieve empowerment†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Theberge and Birrell, 1994, pg. 147) In all previous leadership theories mentioned none are specific to gender. With this is mind; still women in leadership are found to be in the minority. Fred Fielder recognises the effectiveness of a task should be considered in defining leadership. His Contingency theory of leadership, developed in 1961, focuses on 1) Why in a particular situations, some leaders will be more effective than other leaders even though they have equally good credentials. 2) Why a particular leader may be more effective in one situation and not another â€Å"Although women’s participation has risen, women’s involvement in sport as providers has dropped†. (Sports Council, 1992) The recent rise in women participating sport has lead to success in gaining responsibility in areas of sport such as leadership and coaching. The theory above I find is relevant for it can be used against women who are seen as good leaders just would be put out of context when it comes to sport. An example within sport is an American, Shannon Eastin Shannon Eastin made history by being the first female official in a male dominated sport, relating to fielders theory she was seen out of context for the job and is now recognised for her confidence of breaking the stereotype. Shannon became Inspirational for Women who feel not equal to take part in male orientated sports. (www.chargers.com) David Cotter et al defined four distinctive characteristics in his Glass Ceiling Approach (1988) 1. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial difference that is not explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee.† 2. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial difference that is greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome. 3. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial inequality in the chances of advancement into higher levels, not merely the proportions of each gender or race currently at those higher levels.† 4. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial inequality that increases over the course of a career.† This approach is commonly used when individuals or groups are stereotyped and therefore seen as unusual or abstract to be breaking these barriers. When successful of breaking the prejudice against them it is seen as breaking through the barrier to the glass celling. Previous women leaders in sport are seen to be very inspirational, they are made to feel not equal to take part in male orientated sports and therefore demonstrate the glass barrier celling approach when they do a lot making history for women in that context. Even though they might break down these barriers they still not be highly respected and followed by all and will be not seen as equal by all. In todays society there are many powerful female role models. An example in sport is Jessica Ennis. Through the 2012 Olympic she demonstrated her talents and perseverance in sport that achieved amazing results. (www.mirror.co.uk) Conclusion In developing my research from the tutorials I have found leaders are adaptable not only to context, but to individuals. People will find different qualities within the same person that they consider being a trait of a leader. â€Å"Even researches often disagree about which characteristics best describe leadership†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (George et Jones, 2005,pg. 275). Theories and Models help display similar characteristics within leaders but shouldn’t be used to define what a leader should be. Transformation and Ethical leaders are very common within sport for they are found to be influential to their public and demonstrate good morals within sport. All the leaders used in this portfolio are respected, followed and successful in completing their task in hand whilst being influential.

Adidas Promotional Campaign

The purpose of this case assignment is to evaluate Adidas’ new promotional campaign and identify the key factors affecting its success. Promotion serves as one of the fundamental tenets in marketing mix. Promotion is the communication of information by a seller to influence the attitudes and behaviors of potential buyers. 1 (Christ). Advertising, sales promotion, and public relations comprises promotion which are used to target specific buyers. These three aspects of promotion work together to attract and retain potential and existing buyers and also highlights the foundation of Adidas’ promotional campaign for the Beijing Olympics. Sportswear manufacturer Adidas’ recent merger with Reebok represents increased clout the firm can use exert on Nike in upcoming promotions for the Olympics. Nike which currently holds the majority of athletic footwear market has done an excellent job promoting its products to focus on target markets. Both manufacturers target the same markets which include the Basketball, Soccer, and Football athletes, as well as, Hip Hop culture. 4 Promoting sales of sportswear through the use of professional athletes has been a venture both Adidas and Nike have done very well. However, Adidas took a big hit when Nike was capable of capitalizing on the â€Å"Hip Hop Nation†, or subculture closely intertwined with performance sportswear. Rapper artist, Nelly, wrote a song about Nike shoes in 2005, underscoring Nike’s image change from solely performance sportswear to including fashionable and â€Å"cool†. Adidas returned with signing performing artists Jay-Z, Missy Elliott, and 50-Cent to their sportswear lines. Promotional campaigns by both Adidas and Nike reflect consumer focus when purchasing athletic apparel is not solely tied to performance, and suggests that some consumers view athletic apparel as a reflection of personality and a fashion statement. A perspective from Gonzalo Basilico, a 12 yr old student, supports this notion, â€Å"I like Adidas, but I still prefer Nike for the fashion, colours, combinations [. . ] It's all Nike at school. Everyone talks about Nike, no one talks about the others. † 5 Adidas’ merger will allow them to compete on multiple fronts, and also eliminates the no. 3 contender, Reebok, from the competition. The combination of the two will allow Adidas to focus on both performance and fashion sportswear. Adidas styled high heel shoes pictured on their website, indicate a shift Adidas’ intention of attempting to claim both the perform ance and fashion athletic apparel markets. Moreover, Adidas will be able to promote their brands â€Å"Adidas† and â€Å"Reebok† by targeting specific athletic groups like Soccer and Football; respectively, that hold one or the other in high regards. 7 Both Adidas and Nike have robust advertising campaigns. Webpage, television, and magazine advertisements all suggest that the products are not merely performance sportswear, they’re fashion statements. Adidas’ iconic â€Å"3 stripes† and Nike’s â€Å"swoosh† are plastered all of over their advertisements and products. The icons which at first were a company logo, represent a designer label that consumers want. Adidas’ division of efforts between the Adidas and Reebok lines will serve them well in the future. Reebok will be focused on middle priced shoes, while Adidas will focus on high end sport performance and fashion. Division of efforts between the two will pose a formidable advantage against, Nike, the current no. 1 contender in the sport performance apparel market. References 1. Christ, P. (2008). Principles of Marketing. Retrieved 20 JUL 08 from http://www. knowthis. om/tutorials/principles-of-marketing/promotion-decisions/1. htm 2. Unknown (2008). The Promotional Mix. Retreived 20 JUL 08 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Promotional_mix#cite_note-0 3. Kiley, D. (2005). Reebok and Adidas. Retrieved 20 JUL 08 from http://www. businessweek. com/bwdaily/dnflash/aug2005/nf2005084_8340. htm 4. Ibid. 5. Richardson, B. (2005). Adidas Bid Raises Image Concerns. Retrieved 20 JUL 08 from http ://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/business/4741343. stm 6. Adidas (2008). Adidas Homepage. Retrieved 20 JUL 08 from http://www. adidas. com 7. Kiley, D. (2005).

Public Sphere

â€Å"The idea that a public sphere to which everyone can contribute on equal terms is simply a fantasy. † To believe that there exists a public sphere where every single member contributes on an equal level is highly unrealistic. Correspondingly, many academics have critically supported as well as argued against this view. There will be discussion of the public sphere and various writer’s views and concepts regarding it, with specific references to Howley (2007) and Turnbull (2006), as well as Hackett (2010), Holub (1994), Apppadurai (2000), Meikle (2008), and Fraser (1990). The different academics will introduce and discuss; an ideal and flawed public sphere, a democratic public sphere, and the important roles of audiences and participants. Furthermore, there will be a particular focus on Habermas, his theories and findings consequently deconstructing his ideas on his bourgeois public sphere theory. Overall, the key argument in this discussion is that the public sphere is ideally seen as an arena for equal opinions, however pragmatically this is not the case and it is difficult to achieve it because of the different factors that exist between individuals and participants. Holub (1994) explains the public sphere as; â€Å"a realm in which opinions are exchanged between private persons unconstrained (ideally) by external pressures. Theoretically open to all citizens and founded in the family, it is the place where something approaching public opinion is formed. It should be distinguished both from the state, which represents official power, and from the economic structures of civil society as a whole. Its function is actually to mediate between society and state; it is the arena in which the public organizes itself, formulates public opinion, and expresses its desires vis-a-vis [face to face with] the government†. Similarly, a majority of modern conceptualisations of the public sphere relate back to Jurgen Habermas and his bourgeois public sphere. Habermas defines it as a space of reflective discussion about issues and subjects of a common interest, following an informed democratic procedure (Meikle 2008). Thus, a relevant example would be; supplying different resources of media to developing countries in preparation for an election or some sort political decision. By doing this, individuals are being provided an informed democratic process, allowing them access to sources of independent media to make a more informed decision before they elect. This is often present in events such as elections as it is an arena where private people come together as a public; as one. By looking back, the characteristics of the public sphere have not changed when comparing the old and contemporary. Meikle (2008) discusses how Habermas emphasized the role of periodical press in the development of his public sphere (p. 129), describing it as the ‘coffee-house culture’ and how at the time people would sit and discuss topics and events which would in turn lead to influencing the political culture of the 17th and 18th century. However, it must also be noted that Habermas’ accepted criticism to his notion, as well as making it clear that the public sphere is not given to every type of society, and it does not own a fixed status. Furthermore, Meikle (2008) also likens the public sphere to a place where participants can discuss their ideas freely. However, it is important to regard these definitions as the ‘idyllic’ public sphere, Holub (1994) mentions ‘ideally’ in brackets, because realistically it is unachievable to have this sort of ‘perfect’ public sphere where everyone contributes equally. Many academics have criticized Habermas’ bourgeois public sphere, questioning if it ever really existed, and if it did, would it really be able to ever exist again? On that note, Hackett (2010) brings forth the notions that this concept of Habermas’ public sphere that presumes rationality, equality is false, and consequently, he critiques it, alongside Fraser (1990), saying that; â€Å"it embeds a masculinist notion of rationality, and a taken-for granted gendered distinction between private and public spheres. It ignores the ‘counter’ and minority public spheres of subordinate groups, the intrusion of social and economic inequalities into the processes of the public sphere, and the conversion of public opinion into effective state policy through representative political mechanisms. (2010, p. 4). Additionally, Fraser (1990) looks at how Habermas’ theory of the bourgeois public sphere constitutes a number of exclusions, in particular excluding women and individuals of lower social class, as it was not accessible to all. Lower class people did not have the resources and women did not have the same rights, privileges and power as men, in society, to have their equal say. Moreover some of these factors are still relevant, such as the social classes and accessibility to resources. Furthermore, Fraser (1990) mentions the exclusion of subordinate groups, where she states â€Å"subordinate groups sometimes cannot find the right voice or words to express their thoughts, and when they do, they discover they are not heard [and] are silenced, encouraged to keep their wants inchoate, and heard to say ‘yes’ when what they have said is ‘no. ’† (1990, p. 64). It is evident, that this access, whether it is technological, power or status related, to contributing to the public sphere still does not equate to equality. Rather, the factors that need to be considered are not access alone, but also what kind of ‘voice’ the speaker possesses in society. All of which are dependent on a number of factors, such as the speaker’s status in society, gender, age, class, education, culture and country. Moreover, public spheres are relevant in today’s new social media’s like Twitter, Facebook and various blogs. They create an arena in which social sites, like these, generate meanings which are then distributed and discussed amongst a large audience, consequently becoming a public sphere and letting interaction occur with all its participants. This emergence of social media has called for a new public sphere to be formed. Meikle (2008) discusses how media is an integral aspect of the public sphere and that in present society, it is inescapable. Media plays an obligatory part; today’s â€Å"newspapers and magazines, [internet,] radio and television are the media of the public sphere† (Habermas in Meikle, 2008, p. 128). However, for Habermas this role that media plays is an issue, stating that the world shaped by the mass media is only a public sphere on the exterior; only in ‘appearance’ and nothing else. Though the public sphere cannot be regarded as equal, Meikle does suggest that it can be look at in a positive sense; regarding it as a useful standard against which we can measure how the media actually do operate (Meikle, 2008, p. 131). Furthermore, Habermas’ ideal public sphere has often been said that it is being compromised by contemporary tabloid media and culture. It produces a blur between the private and public spheres in regards to celebrity culture and making their private lives a public concern and discussion. As well as regarding media as just pure entertainment, the tabloid media are constructing participants who only consume what they are being fed by the media instead of making their own informed decisions (Meikle 2008). Furthermore, Habermas (in Meikle 2008) believes that our contemporary political mediascapes, which refers to the â€Å"distribution of electronic capabilities to produce and disseminate information [such as] newspapers, magazines and†¦ Television stations† (Apppadurai, 2000, p. 326), are in fact are a long way away from being an ‘ideal public sphere’. He looks at how â€Å"public opinion is no longer produced by the public, instead, public opinion is now something produced for the public† (2008, p. 129) we are being influenced and there is no opportunity to discuss ideas freely, or for there to be complete equality in the contribution to the public sphere because of the different factors that come into play. Similarly, Habermas (in Meikle 2008) uses the term ‘equals’ in regards to participants in the public sphere. Yet, Meikle (2008), in accordance to Fraser’s (1990) view, discusses how the public sphere cannot guarantee each person’s contribution to be of equal amount. This is because of the reasons and factors that exist in society such as; power and status; celebrity power over ordinary individuals, access to resources; developed and developing countries, and gender; the imbalance of power between men and women. Turnbull (2006) looks at the roles of audiences, and why their role is so vital in instances like these. Turnbull discusses the media’s audience and argues how media is looked at as a centrality in our lives and world, some have less or no access and the social and cultural context of the individual is â€Å"embedded in their access to and use of various media technologies†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ The â€Å"participation [of audiences] in an increasingly mediated public sphere may be largely conditional† (p. 80), as it alters the stance on every participant having an ‘equal’ contribution to the public sphere. Howley (2007) states that people need to promote a more democratic media culture, for a place that individuals can share their mutual interests and concerns, discuss topics. He supports that there is not one sole public sphere because there is not a single medium that is ‘perfect’ (pp. 357-358). Furthermore, Howley (2007) brings forth the idea that the public sphere is the centrality for media institutions but is also significant for media students, providing a theoretical perspective; it helps to emphasize the essential and crucial relationships between democracy and modern communication systems. As the role of a democracy, a citizen who is informed and wishes to engage, needs to be accommodated by the media; providing them resources of news, information and opinion, for that individual to then be able to use this to identify themselves towards this common interest. However, this notion of a democratically public sphere has issues that arise, the main one being the nature and conduct of public discourse in a highly mobile and heterogeneous society. By regarding societies that have things like ethnic, religious and cultural diversity, partisan politics, and economic stratification present, the sole idea of achieving agreement on matters of public policy seem inaccessible and unachievable. Also, another issue is the â€Å"contemporary media systems – characterised by unprecedented consolidation of ownership and control on the one hand, and the fragmentation of mass audiences into even smaller ‘niche markets’ on the other – makes issues of access to and participation in public discourse equally problematic† (pp. 343-344). Thus, this idea of an equal and democratic public sphere is difficult to have and carry out. In conclusion, the ideal public sphere tries to offer a place where people are able to discuss their ideas freely between one another. However, to believe that individuals can discuss in a completely free manner, with no influence and be complete equals, contributing on equal terms, is a far-fetched hope. There can only ever be a place of equality and rationality in an ideal society, as factors of social, linguistic and cultural inequalities, rights and even freedom of speech of an individual, all affect any possibility of equal communication and contribution between people in a public sphere. Public Sphere â€Å"The idea that a public sphere to which everyone can contribute on equal terms is simply a fantasy. † To believe that there exists a public sphere where every single member contributes on an equal level is highly unrealistic. Correspondingly, many academics have critically supported as well as argued against this view. There will be discussion of the public sphere and various writer’s views and concepts regarding it, with specific references to Howley (2007) and Turnbull (2006), as well as Hackett (2010), Holub (1994), Apppadurai (2000), Meikle (2008), and Fraser (1990). The different academics will introduce and discuss; an ideal and flawed public sphere, a democratic public sphere, and the important roles of audiences and participants. Furthermore, there will be a particular focus on Habermas, his theories and findings consequently deconstructing his ideas on his bourgeois public sphere theory. Overall, the key argument in this discussion is that the public sphere is ideally seen as an arena for equal opinions, however pragmatically this is not the case and it is difficult to achieve it because of the different factors that exist between individuals and participants. Holub (1994) explains the public sphere as; â€Å"a realm in which opinions are exchanged between private persons unconstrained (ideally) by external pressures. Theoretically open to all citizens and founded in the family, it is the place where something approaching public opinion is formed. It should be distinguished both from the state, which represents official power, and from the economic structures of civil society as a whole. Its function is actually to mediate between society and state; it is the arena in which the public organizes itself, formulates public opinion, and expresses its desires vis-a-vis [face to face with] the government†. Similarly, a majority of modern conceptualisations of the public sphere relate back to Jurgen Habermas and his bourgeois public sphere. Habermas defines it as a space of reflective discussion about issues and subjects of a common interest, following an informed democratic procedure (Meikle 2008). Thus, a relevant example would be; supplying different resources of media to developing countries in preparation for an election or some sort political decision. By doing this, individuals are being provided an informed democratic process, allowing them access to sources of independent media to make a more informed decision before they elect. This is often present in events such as elections as it is an arena where private people come together as a public; as one. By looking back, the characteristics of the public sphere have not changed when comparing the old and contemporary. Meikle (2008) discusses how Habermas emphasized the role of periodical press in the development of his public sphere (p. 129), describing it as the ‘coffee-house culture’ and how at the time people would sit and discuss topics and events which would in turn lead to influencing the political culture of the 17th and 18th century. However, it must also be noted that Habermas’ accepted criticism to his notion, as well as making it clear that the public sphere is not given to every type of society, and it does not own a fixed status. Furthermore, Meikle (2008) also likens the public sphere to a place where participants can discuss their ideas freely. However, it is important to regard these definitions as the ‘idyllic’ public sphere, Holub (1994) mentions ‘ideally’ in brackets, because realistically it is unachievable to have this sort of ‘perfect’ public sphere where everyone contributes equally. Many academics have criticized Habermas’ bourgeois public sphere, questioning if it ever really existed, and if it did, would it really be able to ever exist again? On that note, Hackett (2010) brings forth the notions that this concept of Habermas’ public sphere that presumes rationality, equality is false, and consequently, he critiques it, alongside Fraser (1990), saying that; â€Å"it embeds a masculinist notion of rationality, and a taken-for granted gendered distinction between private and public spheres. It ignores the ‘counter’ and minority public spheres of subordinate groups, the intrusion of social and economic inequalities into the processes of the public sphere, and the conversion of public opinion into effective state policy through representative political mechanisms. (2010, p. 4). Additionally, Fraser (1990) looks at how Habermas’ theory of the bourgeois public sphere constitutes a number of exclusions, in particular excluding women and individuals of lower social class, as it was not accessible to all. Lower class people did not have the resources and women did not have the same rights, privileges and power as men, in society, to have their equal say. Moreover some of these factors are still relevant, such as the social classes and accessibility to resources. Furthermore, Fraser (1990) mentions the exclusion of subordinate groups, where she states â€Å"subordinate groups sometimes cannot find the right voice or words to express their thoughts, and when they do, they discover they are not heard [and] are silenced, encouraged to keep their wants inchoate, and heard to say ‘yes’ when what they have said is ‘no. ’† (1990, p. 64). It is evident, that this access, whether it is technological, power or status related, to contributing to the public sphere still does not equate to equality. Rather, the factors that need to be considered are not access alone, but also what kind of ‘voice’ the speaker possesses in society. All of which are dependent on a number of factors, such as the speaker’s status in society, gender, age, class, education, culture and country. Moreover, public spheres are relevant in today’s new social media’s like Twitter, Facebook and various blogs. They create an arena in which social sites, like these, generate meanings which are then distributed and discussed amongst a large audience, consequently becoming a public sphere and letting interaction occur with all its participants. This emergence of social media has called for a new public sphere to be formed. Meikle (2008) discusses how media is an integral aspect of the public sphere and that in present society, it is inescapable. Media plays an obligatory part; today’s â€Å"newspapers and magazines, [internet,] radio and television are the media of the public sphere† (Habermas in Meikle, 2008, p. 128). However, for Habermas this role that media plays is an issue, stating that the world shaped by the mass media is only a public sphere on the exterior; only in ‘appearance’ and nothing else. Though the public sphere cannot be regarded as equal, Meikle does suggest that it can be look at in a positive sense; regarding it as a useful standard against which we can measure how the media actually do operate (Meikle, 2008, p. 131). Furthermore, Habermas’ ideal public sphere has often been said that it is being compromised by contemporary tabloid media and culture. It produces a blur between the private and public spheres in regards to celebrity culture and making their private lives a public concern and discussion. As well as regarding media as just pure entertainment, the tabloid media are constructing participants who only consume what they are being fed by the media instead of making their own informed decisions (Meikle 2008). Furthermore, Habermas (in Meikle 2008) believes that our contemporary political mediascapes, which refers to the â€Å"distribution of electronic capabilities to produce and disseminate information [such as] newspapers, magazines and†¦ Television stations† (Apppadurai, 2000, p. 326), are in fact are a long way away from being an ‘ideal public sphere’. He looks at how â€Å"public opinion is no longer produced by the public, instead, public opinion is now something produced for the public† (2008, p. 129) we are being influenced and there is no opportunity to discuss ideas freely, or for there to be complete equality in the contribution to the public sphere because of the different factors that come into play. Similarly, Habermas (in Meikle 2008) uses the term ‘equals’ in regards to participants in the public sphere. Yet, Meikle (2008), in accordance to Fraser’s (1990) view, discusses how the public sphere cannot guarantee each person’s contribution to be of equal amount. This is because of the reasons and factors that exist in society such as; power and status; celebrity power over ordinary individuals, access to resources; developed and developing countries, and gender; the imbalance of power between men and women. Turnbull (2006) looks at the roles of audiences, and why their role is so vital in instances like these. Turnbull discusses the media’s audience and argues how media is looked at as a centrality in our lives and world, some have less or no access and the social and cultural context of the individual is â€Å"embedded in their access to and use of various media technologies†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ The â€Å"participation [of audiences] in an increasingly mediated public sphere may be largely conditional† (p. 80), as it alters the stance on every participant having an ‘equal’ contribution to the public sphere. Howley (2007) states that people need to promote a more democratic media culture, for a place that individuals can share their mutual interests and concerns, discuss topics. He supports that there is not one sole public sphere because there is not a single medium that is ‘perfect’ (pp. 357-358). Furthermore, Howley (2007) brings forth the idea that the public sphere is the centrality for media institutions but is also significant for media students, providing a theoretical perspective; it helps to emphasize the essential and crucial relationships between democracy and modern communication systems. As the role of a democracy, a citizen who is informed and wishes to engage, needs to be accommodated by the media; providing them resources of news, information and opinion, for that individual to then be able to use this to identify themselves towards this common interest. However, this notion of a democratically public sphere has issues that arise, the main one being the nature and conduct of public discourse in a highly mobile and heterogeneous society. By regarding societies that have things like ethnic, religious and cultural diversity, partisan politics, and economic stratification present, the sole idea of achieving agreement on matters of public policy seem inaccessible and unachievable. Also, another issue is the â€Å"contemporary media systems – characterised by unprecedented consolidation of ownership and control on the one hand, and the fragmentation of mass audiences into even smaller ‘niche markets’ on the other – makes issues of access to and participation in public discourse equally problematic† (pp. 343-344). Thus, this idea of an equal and democratic public sphere is difficult to have and carry out. In conclusion, the ideal public sphere tries to offer a place where people are able to discuss their ideas freely between one another. However, to believe that individuals can discuss in a completely free manner, with no influence and be complete equals, contributing on equal terms, is a far-fetched hope. There can only ever be a place of equality and rationality in an ideal society, as factors of social, linguistic and cultural inequalities, rights and even freedom of speech of an individual, all affect any possibility of equal communication and contribution between people in a public sphere.